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Evidence-based cannabis information for U.S. military veterans Peer-reviewed citations · No product sales · No advocacy funding

Data Sources & Citations

CannabisVeterans.org relies on peer-reviewed research, primary government documents, and authoritative policy sources. This page lists the major sources we cite across the site so you can assess our evidence base and follow citations to original materials.

Source Types

Peer-reviewed biomedical research (PubMed citations), VHA Directives and VA policy documents, Congressional Research Service reports, NASEM reports, FDA approval documents, primary legal sources (CFR, U.S.C., case law), and authoritative policy organization sources.

Primary Government Documents

VHA Directive 1315

"Access to VHA Clinical Programs for Veterans Participating in State-Approved Marijuana Programs"
Issued: December 8, 2017 (replacing VHA 2011-004)
Status: In effect as of April 2026
Source: VA Publications database (pub_ID=11394)

The foundational document for VA cannabis policy. All VA provider guidance on veteran cannabis use derives from this directive.

VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for PTSD (2023)

"VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Acute Stress Disorder"
Source: VA Office of Quality, Safety and Value

Current clinical guideline for PTSD treatment in the VA/DoD system. Strongly recommends against cannabis for PTSD treatment.

Executive Order 14370

"Increasing Medical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research"
Signed: December 18, 2025 by President Trump
Purpose: Directs AG to complete cannabis rescheduling expeditiously

Executive Order 12564

"Drug-Free Federal Workplace"
Signed: September 15, 1986 by President Reagan
Status: In effect

Congressional Research Service Reports

  • R44782 — Federal marijuana policy analysis
  • LSB11105 — Scheduling and rescheduling analysis
  • Additional CRS reports on specific veteran cannabis topics

NASEM 2017 Report

"The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research"
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017
doi: 10.17226/24625 | PMID: 28182367

The definitive evidence review used as baseline for most subsequent policy discussions on cannabis medical use.

Key Peer-Reviewed Research

PTSD and Cannabis

  • Bonn-Miller MO, Sisley S, Riggs P, et al. (2021) "The short-term impact of 3 smoked cannabis preparations versus placebo on PTSD symptoms." PLoS ONE. PMID: 33730032. The only completed RCT of smoked cannabis in veterans with PTSD.
  • Neumeister A, et al. (2013) "Elevated brain cannabinoid CB1 receptor availability in post-traumatic stress disorder." Molecular Psychiatry. PMID: 23670490. PET imaging evidence of endocannabinoid system alterations in PTSD.
  • Jetly R, et al. (2015) "The efficacy of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, in the treatment of PTSD-associated nightmares." Psychoneuroendocrinology. PMID: 25467221.
  • Rodas JD, Sorkhou M, George TP (2024) "Contribution of Cannabis Use to PTSD Treatment: A Systematic Review." J Clin Psychiatry. PMID: 38353645.

Chronic Pain

  • Whiting PF, et al. (2015) "Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis." JAMA. PMID: 26103030.
  • Nugent SM, et al. (2017) "The Effects of Cannabis Among Adults With Chronic Pain." Annals of Internal Medicine. PMID: 28806817. VA Evidence-Based Synthesis Program review.
  • Stockings E, et al. (2018) "Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic noncancer pain conditions." Pain. PMID: 29847469.

Cannabis Use Disorder in Veterans

  • Hill ML, et al. (2021) "Prevalence of cannabis use, disorder, and medical card possession in U.S. military veterans." NHRVS data.
  • Hasin DS, et al. (2022) "Cannabis use disorder diagnoses in the United States Veterans Affairs health care system." American Journal of Psychiatry. PMC9529770.
  • Bryan JL, et al. (2021) "Cannabis Use Disorder and PTSD." PMID: 33509412.

Opioid Substitution

  • Bachhuber MA, et al. (2014) "Medical cannabis laws and opioid analgesic overdose mortality." JAMA Intern Med. PMID: 25154332. Original ecological study.
  • Shover CL, et al. (2019) "Association between medical cannabis laws and opioid overdose mortality has reversed over time." PNAS. PMID: 31182592. Critical reversal analysis.
  • Bradford AC, et al. (2018) "Association Between US State Medical Cannabis Laws and Opioid Prescribing in the Medicare Part D Population." JAMA Intern Med. PMID: 29610897.

Suicide and Cannabis

  • Anderson DM, Rees DI, Sabia JJ (2014) "Medical marijuana laws and suicides by gender and age." AJPH. PMID: 24432945.
  • Grucza RA, et al. (2015) "A reexamination of the association between medical marijuana laws and suicides." Drug Alcohol Depend. PMID: 25979644.
  • Borges G, Bagge CL, Orozco R (2016) "Cannabis use and suicidality." J Affect Disord. PMID: 26872332.
  • Kimbrel NA, et al. (2021) "Cannabis use disorder and suicide attempts in Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans." PMID: 33477057.

Sleep and Nightmares

  • Fraser GA (2009) "Nabilone in treatment-resistant nightmares in PTSD." CNS Neurosci Ther. PMID: 19228182.
  • Jetly R, et al. (2015) Nabilone RCT. PMID: 25467221.

TBI

  • Hergert DC, et al. (2021) "Use of Medical Cannabis to Treat Traumatic Brain Injury." J Neurotrauma. PMC8260892.
  • Esmaeili A, et al. (2024) "CUD and Cognitive Disorder in Post-9/11 Veterans with TBI." Frontiers in Neurology.

Drug Interactions

  • Smythe MA, et al. (2023) "Cannabis-Warfarin Interaction." J Thromb Haemost.
  • Additional pharmacology literature cited on specific drug interaction questions.

VA Research Resources

  • VA Evidence-Based Synthesis Program — "Benefits and Harms of Cannabis in Chronic Pain or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder"
  • VA Clinical Science Research and Development — ongoing cannabis research projects
  • VA San Diego CBD/PTSD trial — Dr. Marcel Loflin's work
  • VA Quality Enhancement Research Initiative (QUERI) — evidence implementation research

Professional Guidelines

  • VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for PTSD (2023)
  • VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain (2022)
  • American Academy of Sleep Medicine Practice Guidelines (nightmare treatment)
  • American Psychiatric Association Resource Documents on cannabis use
  • Canadian Pain Society neuropathic pain treatment recommendations

Legal and Regulatory Sources

  • Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. §§ 801–971)
  • 38 U.S.C. § 7332 — VA substance use records confidentiality
  • 38 CFR 3.1(n) — willful misconduct definition
  • 38 CFR 3.309 — presumptive service connection
  • 5 C.F.R. § 731.201 — OPM suitability for federal employment
  • 10 U.S.C. § 912a — UCMJ Article 112a (drug offenses)
  • SEAD 4 — Security clearance guidelines (Guideline H on drugs)
  • DOT 49 CFR Part 40 — Drug and alcohol testing procedures

Journals We Cite Frequently

The peer-reviewed research cited on this site comes primarily from:

  • Journal of Traumatic Stress
  • American Journal of Psychiatry
  • Drug and Alcohol Dependence
  • JAMA Internal Medicine
  • JAMA Psychiatry
  • Neuropsychopharmacology
  • PLoS ONE
  • Annals of Internal Medicine
  • Pain
  • The Lancet Psychiatry
  • Psychoneuroendocrinology
  • Addictive Behaviors
  • Journal of Clinical Psychiatry

How to Verify Our Citations

All peer-reviewed research we cite includes PubMed IDs (PMIDs) where available. You can look up any PMID at pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov to access abstracts and links to full text (where available). VHA directives are available through VA Publications. CFR and U.S.C. sections are available through govinfo.gov. NASEM reports are available at nap.nationalacademies.org.

We encourage verification. Reading the primary sources alongside our summaries helps you develop independent judgment about the evidence, and it keeps us honest about our representations.

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